Reconstruction’s Failure Essay Example for Free

Reconstruction’s Failure Essay Congress Reconstruction efforts to ensure equal right to freedom failed because the enforcement acts that was giving in Document 2, Prejudice in the south giving Benjamin Boyer’s speech and from the book â€Å"Black Reconstruction in America† in document 6, another reason was the Compromise of 1877. In the exert from the New York times, it states the Ku Klux Klan purpose was to establish a nucleus around which the adherents of the late rebellion might safely rally. The whites thought that it threatened individual freedom because it allowed the government to punish the Ku Klux Klan and banned disguises. The kkk wonted to enforce the fourteenth amendment which is to â€Å"make slaves citizens† to the constitution of the U.S. They believed in the innate inferiority of blacks. The Ku Klux Klan and other terrorist groups tried to keep African Americans from making economic process They killed there livestock, attacked the African Americans who owned land and forced them to work for previous slaveholders. Many southerners were opposed to African Americans gaining equal right and voting in elections so they formed terrorist groups. They were very prejudice in the south. Benjamin Boyer’s wrote a speech that stated† It is common for the advocates of negro suffrage to assume that the color of the negro is the main obstacle to his political quality† meaning its common for people to see black as people who shouldn’t have the right to vote. He also said Negros are not equal of white Americans and are not entitled. In the book Black reconstruction in America he said the American Negro was compelled to give up his political power. What he was saying if Negros wonted to work or wonted to increase the income they couldn’t handle politics to. Another reason was the Compromise of 1877. After the southerners made great changes affecting the lives of freed African Americans, restricting the right of freed slaves. Hayes got the 20 disputed electoral votes. They were unlimitedly awarded to him after a bitter legal and political battle. The south accepts republican, Hayes becomes President and the North agrees to end reconstruction and withdraw troops. They also agreed to build a railroad from Texas to the West Coast and also agreed to appoint southerners to the cabinet. Reconstruction failed for many different reasons. Reconstruction was suppose to be the period of rebuilding after the Civil war in which all the confederate states returned to the union. Like  may things everything doesn’t always go as planned.

Mughal Emperor Akbar Essay -- Emperors Akbar India Essays

Mughal Emperor Akbar Topic: What were the contribution of the Mughal emperor Akbar to the creation of an Indian national Identity? What were the greatest obstacles to his achievement in this? The greatest of the Mughal’s emperors, Akbar, attempted the creation of a national identity for India by his numerous reforms, literal and cultural development, and policies of integration and organization. His reforms included a liberal policy toward the non-Muslims, religious innovations, the land revenue system and the famous Mansabdari system. His policy of religious toleration became the most significant aspect during his reign. Akbar established a new religion, the Din-i-Ilahi. But Akbar’s attempt to create a national identity and a social equilibrium through his religious and political innovations was met with many obstacles and much opposition. Akbar’s approach to the problem of effectively governing a vast empire, made up of various ethnic groups, was to identify his interests with those of the country and set himself to unite all his subjects. Akbar introduced a policy of reconciliation and assimilation of Hindus, who represented the majority of the population. Akbar understood the importance of tolerance, which was paramount to his dynasty’s long-term viability. The Hindus could only be reconciled by equality of treatment and respect for their institutions. Their employment was beneficial to the empire, as many were better businessmen than the Muslim invaders who were uneducated. Having defeated the Rajputs, the most militant of the Hindu rulers, he allied himself with them, by recruiting many capable Hindu chiefs with the highest ranks in government and by conferring honours upon them. To further build alliance with the Rajputs, he encouraged intermarriages between Mughal and Rajput aristocracy, setting himself as an example by marrying daughters of three leading Rajput chiefs. Akbar’s acts of tolerance were aimed at the Hindu community as a whole and not just at the Rajputs, who became one of the pillars of the empire. His efforts to win over the Hindu population included reforms like, allowing all Hindus to practice their own religion without disturbance, and Akbar further flattered them by personally participating in the ... ...letely destroyed by his great-grandson, Emperor Aurangzeb . - 2000 words - Assessment 84% - Has never been submitted anywhere except to the university for assessment. BIBLIOGRAPHY SECONDARY SOURCES Allan J. & Dodwell H.H., The Cambridge Shorter History of India, London, Cambridge University Press, 1934. De Riencourt, Amaury., The Soul of India, Revised edn., Great Britain, Honeyglen Publishing, 1986. Lamb, Beatrice Pitney., India: A World in Transition, New York, Frederick A. Praeger, 1963. Ratman, T., Report on India, London, Oxford University Press, 1943. Rawlinson, H.G., India: A Short Cultural History, New York, Frederick A. Praeger, 1952. Thapar, Romila., A History of India, vol. 1, London, Penguin Books, 1990. Watson, Francis., A Concise History of India, Great Britain, Thames and Hudson, 1974. accessed 5 August, 2004. accessed 5 August, 2004. accessed 4 August, 2004. accessed 5 August, 2004. accessed 4 August, 2004. accessed 2 August, 2004. accessed 27 July, 2004 accessed 25 July, 2004. accessed 25 July, 2004. accessed 28 July, 2004. accessed 2 August, 2004

Life in Mars Essay

For centuries people have speculated about the possibility of life on Mars owing to the planet’s proximity and similarity to Earth. Serious searches for evidence of life began in the 19th century, and continue via telescopic investigations and landed missions. While early work focused on phenomenology and bordered on fantasy, modern scientific inquiry has emphasized the search for chemical biosignatures of life in the soil and rocks at the planet’s surface, and the search for biomarker gases in the atmosphere. Fictional Martians have been a recurring feature of popular entertainment of the 20th and 21st centuries, and it remains an open question whether life currently exists on Mars, or has existed there in the past. Early speculation Mars’ polar ice caps were observed as early as the mid-17th century, and they were first proven to grow and shrink alternately, in the summer and winter of each hemisphere, by William Herschel in the latter part of the 18th century. By the mid-19th century, astronomers knew that Mars had certain other similarities to Earth, for example that the length of a day on Mars was almost the same as a day on Earth. They also knew that its axial tilt was similar to Earth’s, which meant it experienced seasons just as Earth does — but of nearly double the length owing to its much longer year. These observations led to the increase in speculation that the darker albedo features were water, and brighter ones were land. It was therefore natural to suppose that Mars may be inhabited by some form of life. In 1854, William Whewell, a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, who popularized the word scientist, theorized that Mars had seas, land and possibly life forms. Speculation about life on Mars exploded in the late 19th century, following telescopic observation by some observers of apparent Martian canals — which were however soon found to be optical illusions. Despite this, in 1895, American astronomer Percival Lowell published his book Mars, followed by Mars and its Canals in 1906, proposing that the canals were the work of a long-gone civilization. [2] This idea led British writer H. G. Wells to write The War of the Worlds in 1897, telling of an invasion by aliens from Mars who were fleeing the planet’s desiccation. Spectroscopic analysis of Mars’ atmosphere began in earnest in 1894, when U. S. astronomer William Wallace Campbell showed that neither water nor oxygen were present in the Martian atmosphere. [3] By 1909 better telescopes and the best perihelic opposition of Mars since 1877 conclusively put an end to the canal theory. Missions Mariner 4 Mariner 4 probe performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian surface in 1965. The photographs showed an arid Mars without rivers, oceans, or any signs of life. Further, it revealed that the surface (at least the parts that it photographed) was covered in craters, indicating a lack of plate tectonics and weathering of any kind for the last 4 billion years. The probe also found that Mars has no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic rays. The probe was able to calculate the atmospheric pressure on the planet to be about 0. 6 kPa (compared to Earth’s 101. 3 kPa), meaning that liquid water could not exist on the planet’s surface. 3] After Mariner 4, the search for life on Mars changed to a search for bacteria-like living organisms rather than for multicellular organisms, as the environment was clearly too harsh for these. Viking orbiters Liquid water is necessary for known life and metabolism, so if water was present on Mars, the chances of it having supported life may have been determinant. The Viking orbiters found evidence of possible river valleys in many areas, erosion and , in the southern hemisphere, branched streams. Viking experiments The primary mission of the Viking probes of the mid-1970s was to carry out experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil because the favorable conditions for the evolution of multicellular organisms ceased some four billion years ago on Mars. The tests were formulated to look for microbial life similar to that found on Earth. Of the four experiments, only the Labeled Release (LR) experiment returned a positive result, showing increased 14CO2 production on first exposure of soil to water and nutrients. All scientists agree on two points from the Viking missions: that radiolabeled 14CO2 was evolved in the Labeled Release experiment, and that the GC-MS detected no organic molecules. However, there are vastly different interpretations of what those results imply. The image taken by Viking probes resembling a human face caused many to speculate that it was the work of an extraterrestrial civilization. One of the designers of the Labeled Release experiment, Gilbert Levin, believes his results are a definitive diagnostic for life on Mars. However, this result is disputed by many scientists, who argue that superoxidant chemicals in the soil could have produced this effect without life being present. An almost general consensus discarded the Labeled Release data as evidence of life, because the gas chromatograph & mass spectrometer, designed to identify natural organic matter, did not detect organic molecules. The results of the Viking mission concerning life are considered by the general expert community, at best, as inconclusive. In 2007, during a Seminar of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution (Washington, D. C. , USA), Gilbert Levin’s investigation was assessed once more. Levin still maintains that his original data were correct, as the positive and negative control experiments were in order. Moreover, Levin’s team, on 12 April 2012, reported a statistical speculation, based on old data —reinterpreted mathematically through complexity analysis— of the Labeled Release experiments, that may suggest evidence of â€Å"extant microbial life on Mars. Critics counter that the method has not yet been proven effective for differentiating between biological and non-biological processes on Earth so it is premature to draw any conclusions. Ronald Paepe, an edaphologist (soil scientist), communicated to the European Geosciences Union Congress that the discovery of the recent detection of silicate minerals on Mars may indicate pedogenesis, or soil development processes, extended over the entire surface of Mars. Paepe’s interpretation views most of Mars surface as active soil, colored red by eons of widespread wearing by water, vegetation and microbial activity. A research team from the National Autonomous University of Mexico headed by Rafael Navarro-Gonzalez, concluded that the equipment (TV-GC-MS) used by the Viking program to search for organic molecules, may not be sensitive enough to detect low levels of organics. Because of the simplicity of sample handling, TV–GC–MS is still considered the standard method for organic detection on future Mars missions, so Navarro-Gonzalez suggests that the design of future organic instruments for Mars should include other methods of detection. Gillevinia straata The claim for life on Mars, in the form of Gillevinia straata, is based on old data reinterpreted as sufficient evidence of life, mainly by professors Gilbert Levin, Rafael Navarro-Gonzalez and Ronalds Paepe. The evidence supporting the existence of Gillevinia straata microorganisms relies on the data collected by the two Mars Viking landers that searched for biosignatures of life, but the analytical results were, officially, inconclusive. In 2006, Mario Crocco, a neurobiologist at the Neuropsychiatric Hospital Borda in Buenos Aires, Argentina, proposed the creation of a new nomenclatural rank that classified the Viking landers’ results as ‘metabolic’ and therefore belonging to a form of life. Crocco proposed to create new biological ranking categories (taxa), in the new kingdom system of life, in order to be able to accommodate the genus of Martian microorganisms. Crocco proposed the following taxonomical entry: * Organic life system: Solaria * Biosphere: Marciana Kingdom: Jakobia (named after neurobiologist Christfried Jakob) * Genus et species: Gillevinia straata As a result, the hypothetical Gillevinia straata would not be a bacterium (which rather is a terrestrial taxon), but a member of the kingdom ‘Jakobia’ in the biosphere ‘Marciana’ of the ‘Solaria’ system. The intended effect of the new nomenclature was to reverse the burden of proof concerning the life issue, but the taxonomy proposed by Crocco has not been accepted by the scientific community and is considered a single nomen nudum. Further, no Mars mission has found traces of biomolecules. Phoenix lander, 2008 The Phoenix mission landed a robotic spacecraft in the polar region of Mars on May 25, 2008 and it operated until November 10, 2008. One of the mission’s two primary objectives was to search for a â€Å"habitable zone† in the Martian regolith where microbial life could exist, the other main goal being to study the geological history of water on Mars. The lander has a 2. 5 meter robotic arm that was capable of digging shallow trenches in the regolith. There was an electrochemistry experiment which analysed the ions in the regolith and the amount and type of antioxidants on Mars. The Viking program data indicate that oxidants on Mars may vary with latitude, noting that Viking 2 saw fewer oxidants than Viking 1 in its more northerly position. Phoenix landed further north still. Phoenix’s preliminary data revealed that Mars soil contains perchlorate, and thus may not be as life-friendly as thought earlier. The pH and salinity level were viewed as benign from the standpoint of biology. The analysers also indicated the presence of bound water and CO2. Mars Science Laboratory Main articles: Mars Science Laboratory and Curiosity rover The Mars Science Laboratory mission is a NASA spacecraft launched on November 26, 2011 that deployed the Curiosity rover, a nuclear-powered robot bearing instruments designed to look for past or present conditions relevant to biological activity (planetary habitability). The Curiosity rover landed on Mars on Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater, near Aeolis Mons (a. k. a. Mount Sharp), on August 6, 2012. Future missions * ExoMars is a European-led multi-spacecraft programme currently under development by the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA for launch in 2016 and 2018. Its primary scientific mission will be to search for possible biosignatures on Mars, past or present. Two rovers with a 2 m core drill each will be used to sample various depths beneath the surface where liquid water may be found and where microorganisms might survive cosmic radiation. * Mars Sample Return Mission — The best life detection experiment proposed is the examination on Earth of a soil sample from Mars. However, the difficulty of providing and maintaining life support over the months of transit from Mars to Earth remains to be solved. Providing for still unknown environmental and nutritional requirements is daunting. Should dead organisms be found in a sample, it would be difficult to conclude that those organisms were alive when obtained. Meteorites NASA maintains a catalog of 34 Mars meteorites. These assets are highly valuable since they are the only physical samples available of Mars. Studies conducted by NASA’s Johnson Space Center show that at least three of the meteorites contain potential evidence of past life on Mars, in the form of microscopic structures resembling fossilized bacteria (so-called biomorphs). Although the scientific evidence collected is reliable, its interpretation varies. To date, none of the original lines of scientific evidence for the hypothesis that the biomorphs are of exobiological origin (the so-called biogenic hypothesis) have been either discredited or positively ascribed to non-biological explanations. Over the past few decades, seven criteria have been established for the recognition of past life within terrestrial geologic samples. Those criteria are: 1. Is the geologic context of the sample compatible with past life? 2. Is the age of the sample and its stratigraphic location compatible with possible life? 3. Does the sample contain evidence of cellular morphology and colonies? 4.  Is there any evidence of biominerals showing chemical or mineral disequilibria? 5. Is there any evidence of stable isotope patterns unique to biology? 6. Are there any organic biomarkers present? 7. Are the features indigenous to the sample? For general acceptance of past life in a geologic sample, essentially most or all of these criteria must be met. All seven criteria have not yet been met for any of the Martian samples, but continued investigations are in progress. As of 2010, reexaminations of the biomorphs found in the three Martian meteorites are underway with more advanced analytical instruments than previously available. The scientists conducting the study at Johnson Space Center believed that before the end of the year they would find in the meteorites definitive evidence for past life on Mars. ALH84001 meteorite The ALH84001 meteorite was found in December 1984 in Antarctica, by members of the ANSMET project; the meteorite weighs 1. 93 kilograms (4. 3 lb). The sample was ejected from Mars about 17 million years ago and spent 11,000 years in or on the Antarctic ice sheets. Composition analysis by NASA revealed a kind of magnetite that on Earth, is only found in association with certain microorganisms. Then, in August 2002, another NASA team led by Thomas-Keptra published a study indicating that 25% of the magnetite in ALH 84001 occurs as small, uniform-sized crystals that, on Earth, is associated only with biologic activity, and that the remainder of the material appears to be normal inorganic magnetite. The extraction technique did not permit determination as to whether the possibly biological magnetite was organized into chains as would be expected. The meteorite displays indication of relatively low temperature secondary mineralization by water and shows evidence of preterrestrial aqueous alteration. Evidence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been identified with the levels increasing away from the surface. Some structures resembling the mineralized casts of terrestrial bacteria and their appendages (fibrils) or by-products (extracellular polymeric substances) occur in the rims of carbonate globules and preterrestrial aqueous alteration regions. The size and shape of the objects is consistent with Earthly fossilized nanobacteria, but the existence of nanobacteria itself is controversial. In November 2009, NASA scientists said that a recent, more detailed analysis showed that the meteorite â€Å"contains strong evidence that life may have existed on ancient Mars†. Nakhla Meteorite The Nakhla meteorite fell on Earth on June 28, 1911 on the locality of Nakhla, Alexandria, Egypt. In 1998, a team from NASA’s Johnson Space Center obtained a small sample for analysis. Researchers found preterrestrial aqueous alteration phases and objects of the size and shape consistent with Earthly fossilized nanobacteria, but the existence of nanobacteria itself is controversial. Analysis with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) studied its high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in 2000, and NASA scientists concluded that as much as 75% of the organic matter in Nakhla â€Å"may not be recent terrestrial contamination†. This caused additional interest in this meteorite, so in 2006, NASA managed to obtain an additional and larger sample from the London Natural History Museum. On this second sample, a large dendritic carbon content was observed. When the results and evidence were published on 2006, some independent researchers claimed that the carbon deposits are of biologic origin. However, it was remarked that since carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the Universe, finding it in curious patterns is not indicative or suggestive of biological origin. Shergotty meteorite The Shergotty meteorite, a 4 kg Martian meteorite, fell on Earth on Shergotty, India on August 25, 1865 and was retrieved by witnesses almost immediately. [45] This meteorite is relatively young, calculated to have been formed on Mars only 165 million years ago from volcanic origin. It is composed mostly of pyroxene and thought to have undergone preterrestrial aqueous alteration for several centuries. Certain features in its interior suggest to be remnants of biofilm and their associated microbial communities. [33] Work is in progress on searching for magnetites within alteration phases. Liquid water No Mars probe since Viking has tested the Martian regolith specifically for metabolism which is the ultimate sign of current life. NASA’s recent missions have focused on another question: whether Mars held lakes or oceans of liquid water on its surface in the ancient past. Scientists have found hematite, a mineral that forms in the presence of water. Thus, the mission of the Mars Exploration Rovers of 2004 was not to look for present or past life, but for evidence of liquid water on the surface of Mars in the planet’s ancient past. Liquid water, necessary for Earth life and for metabolism as generally conducted by species on Earth, cannot exist on the surface of Mars under its present low atmospheric pressure and temperature, except at the lowest shaded elevations for short periods and liquid water does not appear at the surface itself. In June 2000, evidence for water currently under the surface of Mars was discovered in the form of flood-like gullies. Deep subsurface water deposits near the planet’s liquid core might form a present-day habitat for life. However, in March 2006, astronomers announced the discovery of similar gullies on the Moon, which is believed never to have had liquid water on its surface. The astronomers suggest that the gullies could be the result of micrometeorite impacts. In March 2004, NASA announced that its rover Opportunity had discovered evidence that Mars was, in the ancient past, a wet planet. This had raised hopes that evidence of past life might be found on the planet today. ESA confirmed that the Mars Express orbiter had directly detected huge reserves of water ice at Mars’ south pole in January 2004. On July 28, 2005, ESA announced that they had recorded photographic evidence of surface water ice near Mars’ North pole. In December 2006, NASA showed images taken by the Mars Global Surveyor that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars. The images did not actually show flowing water. Rather, they showed changes in craters and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water oursed through them as recently as several years ago, and is perhaps doing so even now. Some researchers were skeptical that liquid water was responsible for the surface feature changes seen by the spacecraft. They said other materials such as sand or dust can flow like a liquid and produce similar results. Recent analysis of Martian sandstones, using data obtained from orbital spectrometry, suggests that the waters that previously existed on the surface of Mars would have had too high a salinity to support most Earth-like life. Tosca et al. found that the Martian water in the locations they studied all had water activity, aw ? . 78 to 0. 86—a level fatal to most Terrestrial life. Haloarchaea, however, are able to live in hypersaline solutions, up to the saturation point. The Phoenix Mars lander from NASA, which landed in the Mars Arctic plain in May 2008, confirmed the presence of frozen water near the surface. This was confirmed when bright material, exposed by the digging arm of the lander, was found to have vaporized and disappeared in 3 to 4 days. This has been attributed to sub-surface ice, exposed by the digging and sublimated on exposure to the atmosphere. Methane Trace amounts of methane in the atmosphere of Mars were discovered in 2003 and verified in 2004. As methane is an unstable gas, its presence indicates that there must be an active source on the planet in order to keep such levels in the atmosphere. It is estimated that Mars must produce 270 ton/year of methane, but asteroid impacts account for only 0. 8% of the total methane production. Although geologic sources of methane such as serpentinization are possible, the lack of current volcanism, hydrothermal activity or hotspots are not favorable for geologic methane. It has been suggested that the methane was produced by chemical reactions in meteorites, driven by the intense heat during entry through the atmosphere. Although research published in December 2009 ruled out this possibility, research published in 2012 suggest that a source may be organic compounds on meteorites that are converted to methane by ultraviolet radiation. The existence of life in the form of microorganisms such as methanogens is among possible, but as yet unproven sources. If microscopic Martian life is producing the methane, it likely resides far below the surface, where it is still warm enough for liquid water to exist. Since the 2003 discovery of methane in the atmosphere, some scientists have been designing models and in vitro experiments testing growth of methanogenic bacteria on simulated Martian soil, where all four methanogen strains tested produced substantial levels of methane, even in the presence of 1. 0wt% perchlorate salt. The results reported indicate that the perchlorates discovered by the Phoenix Lander would not rule out the possible presence of methanogens on Mars. A team led by Levin suggested that both phenomena—methane production and degradation—could be accounted for by an ecology of methane-producing and methane-consuming microorganisms. In June 2012, scientists reported that measuring the ratio of hydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, â€Å"†¦ low H2/CH4 ratios (less than approximately 40) indicate that life is likely present and active. † Other scientists have recently reported methods of detecting hydrogen and methane in extraterrestrial atmospheres. Formaldehyde In February 2005, it was announced that the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) on the European Space Agency’s Mars Express Orbiter, detected traces of formaldehyde in the atmosphere of Mars. Vittorio Formisano, the director of the PFS, has speculated that the formaldehyde could be the byproduct of the oxidation of methane, and according to him, would provide evidence that Mars is either extremely geologically active, or harbouring colonies of microbial life. NASA scientists consider the preliminary findings are well worth a follow-up, but have also rejected the claims of life. Silica In May 2007, the Spirit rover disturbed a patch of ground with its inoperative wheel, uncovering an area extremely rich in silica (90%). The feature is reminiscent of the effect of hot spring water or steam coming into contact with volcanic rocks. Scientists consider this as evidence of a past environment that may have been favorable for microbial life, and theorize that one possible origin for the silica may have been produced by the interaction of soil with acid vapors produced by volcanic activity in the presence of water. Another possible origin could have been from water in a hot spring environment. Based on Earth analogs, hydrothermal systems on Mars would be highly attractive for their potential for preserving organic and inorganic biosignatures. For example, iron oxidizing bacteria are abundant in marine and terrestrial hydrothermal systems, where they often display distinctive cell morphologies and are commonly encrusted by minerals, especially bacteriogenic iron oxides and silica. Microfossils of iron oxidizing bacteria have been found in ancient Si-Fe deposits and iron oxidation may be an ancient and widespread metabolic pathway. 83] If possible, future rover missions will target extinct hydrothermal vent systems on Mars. Geysers on Mars The seasonal frosting and defrosting of the southern ice cap results in the formation of spider-like radial channels carved on 1 meter thick ice by sunlight. Then, sublimed CO2 – and probably water –increase pressure in their interior producing geyser-like eruptions of cold fluids often mixed with dark basaltic sand or mud. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars. A team of Hungarian scientists proposes that the geysers’ most visible features, dark dune spots and spider channels, may be colonies of photosynthetic Martian microorganisms, which over-winter beneath the ice cap, and as the sunlight returns to the pole during early spring, light penetrates the ice, the microorganisms photosynthesize and heat their immediate surroundings. A pocket of liquid water, which would normally evaporate instantly in the thin Martian atmosphere, is trapped around them by the overlying ice. As this ice layer thins, the microorganisms show through grey. When the layer has completely melted, the microorganisms rapidly desiccate and turn black, surrounded by a grey aureole. The Hungarian scientists believe that even a complex sublimation process is insufficient to explain the formation and evolution of the dark dune spots in space and time. Since their discovery, fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke promoted these formations as deserving of study from an astrobiological perspective. A multinational European team suggests that if liquid water is present in the spiders’ channels during their annual defrost cycle, they might provide a niche where certain microscopic life forms could have retreated and adapted while sheltered from solar radiation. A British team also considers the possibility that organic matter, microbes, or even simple plants might co-exist with these inorganic formations, especially if the mechanism includes liquid water and a geothermal energy source. However, they also remark that the majority of geological structures may be accounted for without invoking any organic â€Å"life on Mars† hypothesis. It has been proposed to develop the Mars Geyser Hopper lander to study the geysers up close. Cosmic radiation In 1965, the Mariner 4 probe discovered that Mars had no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic radiation and solar radiation; observations made in the late 1990s by the Mars Global Surveyor confirmed this discovery. Scientists speculate that the lack of magnetic shielding helped the solar wind blow away much of Mars’s atmosphere over the course of several billion years. After mapping cosmic radiation levels at various depths on Mars, researchers have concluded that any life within the first several meters of the planet’s surface would be killed by lethal doses of cosmic radiation. In 2007, it was calculated that DNA and RNA damage by cosmic radiation would limit life on Mars to depths greater than 7. 5 metres below the planet’s surface. Therefore, the best potential locations for discovering life on Mars may be at subsurface environments that have not been studied yet.

Wishful Thinking Meets Reality Rhetorical Analysis

Wishful Thinking Meets Reality: Rhetorical Analysis Everyone can relate to a time in their life when they desired a â€Å"picture-perfect† life with lots of friends and all the material things they could wish for themselves. However, they realize that maybe the â€Å"picture-perfect† life isn’t what they expected once it becomes reality. In the films Freaky Friday and 13 Going on 30, the audience follows the lives of the protagonists as they face their wishes to have a â€Å"better life†. Throughout the essay, we will examine the audiences, goals, and strategies of these two films, in which we will decide what movie demonstrated the finest job of using the elements to convey the story. The remake of the original film, Freaky Friday, was released in 2003. The movie is filled with drama and laughter as the main character Anna Coleman must live her life in her mother’s body as her mother lives as the daughter, due to a spell cast on them from a fortune in a fortune cookie. Anna’s mother, Tess Colman, and she must learn to adapt to each other’s everyday lives and figure out how to get back to their normal life. The movie 13 Going on 30 follows main character, Jenna Rink, as she makes a wish at her thirteenth birthday party to become an adult. The next morning, Jenna finds herself as an adult and she attempts to live as a responsible adult. In both movies the audience will follow the characters as they discover that sometimes what you wish for may come true, in which it may notShow MoreRelatedEssay on Mintzberg 5 Ps of Strategy9155 Words   |  37 Pagesbest known definitionsI6),but the question remains: which resources and for what purposes? An army may plan to reduce the number of nails in its shoes, or a corporation may realize a pattern of marketing only products painted black, but these hardly meet the lofty label strategy. O r do they? As the word has been handed down from the military, strategy refers to the important things, tactics to the details (more formally, tactics teaches the use of armed forces in the engagement, strategyRead MorePopulation Problem in Bangladesh14871 Words   |  60 PagesThe Bangladeshi English Essay Book An Analysis by Robin Upton, January 22nd 2006 Public Domain under (cc) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0 Jan 2006 - Robin Upton - http:// www.RobinUpton.com/research Contents Purpose........................................................................................................... 1 Introduction to Essay Books .......................................................................... 1 Impact of Essay Books ................Read MoreStrategy Safari by Mintzberg71628 Words   |  287 PagesCollective Process 263 10 The Environmental School Strategy Formation as a Reactive Process 285 I I The Configuration School Strategy Formation as a Process of Transformation 301 12 Hang On, Ladies and Gentlemen, You Have Yet to Meet the Whole Beast References 375 Index 397 349 EMBARKATION T his trip began with a paper by Henry called Strategy Formation: Schools of Thought, published by Jim Fredrickson in a collection entitled Perspectives on Strategic Management